Wednesday, December 25, 2019

What is a Logical Fallacy

A logical fallacy is an error in reasoning that renders an argument invalid. It is also called a  fallacy, an informal logical fallacy, and an informal fallacy. All logical fallacies are  nonsequiturs—arguments in which  a  conclusion  doesnt follow  logically from what preceded it.   Clinical psychologist Rian McMullin expands this definition: Logical fallacies are unsubstantiated assertions that are often delivered with a conviction that makes them sound as though they are proven facts. ...Whatever their origins, fallacies can take on a special life of their own  when they are popularized in the media and become part of a national credo (The New Handbook of Cognitive Therapy Techniques, 2000) Examples and Observations A logical fallacy is a false statement that weakens an argument by distorting an issue, drawing false conclusions, misusing evidence, or misusing language. (Dave Kemper et al., Fusion: Integrated Reading and Writing. Cengage, 2015) Reasons to Avoid Logical Fallacies There are three good reasons to avoid logical fallacies in your writing. First, logical fallacies are wrong and, simply put, dishonest if you use them knowingly. Second, they take away from the strength of your argument. Finally, the use of logical fallacies can make your readers feel that you do not consider them to be very intelligent. (William R. Smalzer, Write to Be Read: Reading, Reflection, and Writing, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2005) Whether examining or writing arguments, make sure you detect logical fallacies that weaken arguments. Use evidence to support claims and validate information—this will make you appear credible and create trust in the minds of your audience. (Karen A. Wink,  Rhetorical Strategies for Composition: Cracking an Academic Code.  Rowman Littlefield, 2016) Informal Fallacies Although some arguments are so blatantly fallacious that at most they can be used to amuse us, many are more subtle and can be difficult to recognize. A conclusion often appears to follow logically and nontrivially from true premises, and only careful examination can reveal the fallaciousness of the argument. Such deceptively fallacious arguments, which can be recognized as such with little or no reliance on the methods of formal logic, are known as informal fallacies. (R. Baum, Logic. Harcourt, 1996) Formal and Informal Fallacies There are two main categories of logical errors: formal fallacies and informal fallacies. The term formal refers to the structure of an argument and the branch of logic that is most concerned with structure—deductive reasoning. All formal fallacies are errors in deductive reasoning that render an argument invalid. The term informal refers to the non-structural aspects of arguments, usually emphasized in inductive reasoning. Most informal fallacies are errors of induction, but some of these fallacies can apply to deductive arguments as well. (Magedah Shabo, Rhetoric, Logic, and Argumentation: A Guide for Student Writers. Prestwick House, 2010) Example of Logical Fallacies You oppose a senators proposal to extend  government-funded health care to poor minority children because that senator is a liberal Democrat. This is a common logical fallacy known as ad hominem, which is Latin  for against the man. Instead of dealing with the argument you preempt any discussion by basically saying, I cannot listen to anyone who does not share my social and political values. You indeed may decide that you dont like the argument the senator is making, but it is your job to poke holes in the argument, not to engage in a personal attack. (Derek Soles,  The Essentials of Academic Writing, 2nd ed. Wadsworth, 2010)  Ã‚   Suppose that each November, a witch doctor  performs a voodoo dance designed to summon the gods of winter and that soon after the dance is performed, the weather, in fact, begins to turn cold. The witch doctors dance is associated with the arrival of winter, meaning that the two events appear to have happened in conjunction with one another.  But is this really evidence that the witch doctors dance actually caused the arrival of winter? Most of us would answer no, even though the two events seem to happen in conjunction with one another. Those who argue that a causal relationship exists  simply because of the presence of statistical association are committing a logical fallacy known as the post hoc propter ergo hoc fallacy. Sound economics warns against this potential source of error. (James D. Gwartney et al.,  Economics: Private and Public Choice, 15th ed.  Cengage, 2013) The arguments in support of civic education are often seductive.... Although we might emphasize different civic virtues, dont we all honor a love for our country [and] a respect for human rights and the rule of law.... Since no one is born with an innate understanding of these virtues, they must be learned, and schools are our most visible institutions for learning. But this argument suffers from a logical fallacy: Just because civic virtues must be learned, does not mean they can be easily taught—and still less that they can be taught in schools. Nearly every political scientist who studies how people acquire knowledge and ideas about good citizenship agrees that schools and, in particular, civics courses have no significant effect on civic attitudes and very little if any, effect on civic knowledge. (J. B. Murphy, The New York Times, September 15, 2002)

Tuesday, December 17, 2019

French Revolution Essay - 1129 Words

The world has seen many revolutions in history. One of the biggest revolutions was the French Revolution because it came with many consequences and influences. Nothing else like this had ever happened this powerful to change the political status quo. Many people surprisingly don’t know how the French Revolution started but through this paper we will be learning more about it. Starting in 1789 through 1794 the people of France dethroned and arrested their king Louis XVI, took apart his monarchy, and executed him, his wife, and thousands of nobles. The French people then set up a new system of government on concepts of popular rule, personal liberty, and equal justice for all to replace their old leaders. This was a new start for†¦show more content†¦In 1788 Louis called a meeting with the Estates General and this would be a big part in setting the stage for the beginning of the French Revolution. The meeting would consist of representatives of each Estate. Even though the Third Estate made up 97% of the French population Louis would rely on the First and Second Estate to overrule the third. But things would soon turn for the worst for Louis, because the commoners (the third Estate) with a few of the members of the other estates disobeyed the king and named themselves the National Assembly. Their goal was to get all the all French citizens basic civil rights. They were willing to be very peaceful at the beginning, but Louis would not even come to an agreement with any of the Third Estate’s demands. Louis called a meeting between himself and the delegates of the three estates on June 23, 1789 three days after the Tennis Court Oath. There Louis told the delegates he would negotiate a number of reforms. The reforms Louis named had nothing to do with the demands of the Third Estate. The revolutionaries would not give up that easily and wanted Louis to know it. This made the king upset and now he would begin to use the army to force his will on the people. In late June Louis ordered four regiments of soldiers to advance on Paris and Versailles and soon after that ordered up several more. A large group of people went to Bastille to getShow MoreRelated French Revolution Essay1141 Words   |  5 Pages Why was there a French Revolution? Between, 1789  ¡V 1799, many events occurred in France that caused an outbreak within the people thus leading to a revolution. This culminated in the France becoming a democratic government. This essay will argue that the resentment of absolute government, financial difficulties, the famine, rise of philosophes and the ongoing feud between the estates are all the major causes of why there was a revolution in France. Firstly before going into the topic, the wordRead MoreThe French Revolution Essay917 Words   |  4 PagesThe French Revolution was a period of time from 1789 to 1799 in France where there was political instability. It officially began on the 14th of July, 1789, when the Bastille, which was a symbol of the King’s harsh policies, was stormed. The King, Louis XVI, the Queen, Marie-Antoinette and about 40,000 people were all brutally murdered. But there was also a positive side, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was formally adopted on August 1789 and feudalism was abolished. This essay willRead MoreThe French Revolution Essay907 Words   |  4 Pagesstormed the Bastille and initiated the French Revolution. This essay will analyze the main causes of the French Revolution, specifically, the ineffectiveness of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, the dissatisfaction of the Third Estate, and the Enlightenment. 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Its causes ranged from the American Revolution, the economic crisis in France, social injustices to the immediate causes like the fall of Bastille, the Convening of he Estate-General, and the Great Fear. As a result of this revolution there many effects , immediate and long term. The immediate effects were the declaration of rights of man, abolishing of olds reign, executionRead MoreFrench Revolution Essay802 Words   |  4 Pages The French Revolution was a time for expansion in human freedom. It was a way for the French to re-invent their government to give some sort of equality for their people. There were many successes the French Revolution made, such as creating public schools for children and making it mandatory for them to attend. The French Revolution had the intentions to create a better government and lifestyle for their people, such as Jacobins who believed in the po or having their turn to rule. ThoughRead MoreAmerican and French Revolution - Essay1419 Words   |  6 PagesEssay Exam #1 1. The leaders of both the American and French Revolutions declared that their goal was to create a new political system based on the principles of liberty and equality. However, the interpretation of those ideas by the American Founding Fathers turned out to be distinctly different from that of the French revolutionaries. How did those different interpretations of the concepts of liberty and equality affect the outcomes and the legacies of both revolutions? Analyze, compare, and contrastRead More French Revolution Essay1522 Words   |  7 PagesCountry (1789). Dr. Price argued that patriotism was quot;a blind and narrow principle,producing a contempt of other countriesquot; and he called upon people to become quot;citizens of the worldquot;. Burkes most famous tract,Reflections on the Revolution in France,strongly attacked Price. Instead of forcing people to conform to a model of an quot;ideal societyquot;, Burke started by studying mans true nature. He observed that real people were not abstract quot;menquot; but Englishmen, FrenchmenRead MoreThe French Revolution Essay892 Words   |  4 PagesBefore the French Revolution, France was facing many problems, such as famine, high taxes, high food prices, and an absolute monarchy incapable of solving problems. In comparison to the nobility and clergy the bourgeoisie and the peasants were taxed ridiculously high. So clearly during this time we are getting the sense that the third estate carried the burden of repaying France’s debt. So because of this unfair treatment and their knowledge of enlightened thought, the Bourgeoisie sought to put anRead MoreThe French Revolution Essay1630 Words   |  7 PagesThe French Revolution Why was there a French Revolution? This is a question of continual interests not only to professors and philosophers, but to everybody who takes an interests in the history of the world. Genuinely, therefore, it is also a subject of much contention. The statement citing the fundamental cause of the French Revolution as the collision between a powerful rising Bourgeoisie and an ingrained aristocracy, defending its privileges it had for centuries, has great relevance

Monday, December 9, 2019

Gyrating Hips Essay Example For Students

Gyrating Hips Essay Gyrating hips, fast feet, high stepping, and magnificent moves, are characteristics that belong to the great African-American dancers of historys past. Famus Black Archives Museum has a vast collection of African-American artifacts including a variety of pictures of dazzling African-American dancers. These dancers Katherine Dunham, Martha Graham, and Bill Bo jangles Robinson exemplify black beauty, style, and grace. Katherine Dunham was born in Glen Ellyn, Illinois on June 22, 1909, to Albert and Fanny Dunham. Katherine was a great dance teacher. Later in her career she was able to get together her own dance company. In February 1940 the Katherine Dunham Dance Company opened at the Windsor Theatre, west 48th Street, with Dunhams own Tropics and Le Jazz Hot. The show was a phenomenal success. Following that show many newspaper companies were amazed and wanted to inter view Mrs. Dunham. Katherine Dunham was indeed on her way to the top. From that night her name and her dances took her behind the footlights of the worlds greatest stages. Her unique and stylistic perfection were the forces that propelled her toward that magic moment when the dance, dancers, and cultural story became one. Soon after the success, and offer came to the Dunhams Dance Company to take part in an all-Negro musical entitled Cabin in the Sky. The salary offered of three thousand dollars a week was an amount this company never dreamed of making. Dunhams role was Georgia Brown, and for the first time she had the opportunity not only to dance, but also, to sing and act as well. Martha Graham was born in a suburb of Pittsburgh, Pa. She became a leading dancer and choreographer, and she also pioneered a movement called Modern Dance. Martha Graham defined dance as making the interior landscape, and she used the entire body in dance movement to reveal the inner, true feeling of the characters she portrayed. Her movements were not always pretty, because the feelings she tried to express included fear, jealousy, anger, and hatred. Early in her career she sometimes shocked audiences with her sharp angular poses and her abrupt, jerky actions. Martha Graham also danced with the Denishawn Company from 1916 to 1923. During the 1930s Graham began to choreograph dances for her own company based on primitive rituals and on American life. In the 1940s, she began interpreting the feelings of women. Her dances were inspired by the lives of Emily Dickinson, the Bronte sisters, and the great features of Greek mythology as interpreted be the psychoanalytic theories of the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung. Perhaps the greatest of the Greek dances was Clytemnestra 1958, and study of guilt and redemption. But along with such stark tragedies, she also created her joyous Appalachian Spring 1944 and the sparkling comment on dancers and their discipline, Acrobat of God 1960. Bill Bo jangles Robinson was born in Virginia as Luther Robinson in 1878. He became one of the most popular and beloved performers of his day. His combination of tap dancing,  song, telling jokes, and imitating natural sounds proved a popular one for audiences for many years. It is claimed that some of his contemporaries were superior in dancing ability and had a wider rang of steps, but he was the acknowledged master in appealing to the public. Robinson had his first break through in film in 1935 when he appeared in The Little Colonel with Shirley Temple. For this performance the taught a child star a version of the step dance. Because of his great dance performance Bo jangles was offered to be in more films. Such as Hooray for Love, The Big Broadcast of 1937, and he also played Will Rogers servant in The Old Kentucky. Robinson became on of the major stars of his age. His career lasted long enough to be documented on film and on recordings of radio broadcasts. Despite the bright smile he featured in his act and his public benefactions, Robinson had a violent darker side. Although they may not be well known, their efforts helped pave the way for African-American entertainers.

Monday, December 2, 2019

Supreme court case analysis free essay sample

In 1993, respondent Christopher Simmons in the state of Missouri at the age of 17 and his friend, had planned to rob and kill a female victim named Shirley crook. Simmons entered the house, robbed it and proceeded to kill the victim and later threw her off of bridge in a state park. Subsequent to the trial, the court found Simmons to be guilty of all charges and sentenced him to death. Based on the precedent, Stanford v. Kentucky, the State Court of Missouri maintained that the execution of Simmons was applicable. However, Simmons appealed his execution due to his status as a minor and the violation of both the eight and the fourteen amendments. Issues: The issue was whether it is constitutional and acceptable to execute a juvenile offender under the protection of the 8th amendment that Rights, protecting him as a minor from punishment considered to be cruel and unusual and the 14th amendment that disallows the government from violating the right(s) to pursue ‘Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness’ with regard to any and all citizens of the United States of America. We will write a custom essay sample on Supreme court case analysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Holdings: The answer was No. The Supreme Court of the United States first established the applicability of the Eight Amendment, as well a precedent of the application of the death penalty to minors. Historically in U. S, minors rarely faced capital punishment. There was a â€Å"consensus† that the country is against the death penalty to juveniles. The Supreme Court stressed that â€Å"Capital punishment must be limited to those offenders who commit ‘a narrow category of the most serious crimes’ and whose extreme culpability makes them ‘the most deserving of execution. ’† The Supreme also solidified its decision based on the principle that juveniles lack maturity and understanding of responsibility. Juveniles are prone to be influenced by their negative environmental pressures such as families, friends, and peers. In addition the complete personality of a juvenile is not fully developed. They are not considered responsible adults yet. Analysis and reasoning: Based on the case of Roper v Simmons which occurred between the plaintiff, the prosecutor of the state of Missouri: Roper and the defendant Simmons, Justice O’Connor’s dissent did not see how a consensus existed. Justice Scalia, joined by the Chief Justice and Justice Thomas, took issue with the notion that the Constitution had â€Å"changed† in such a way to permit the decision . The constitution should evolve with time. To better analyze the final outcome, let’s stress on the important keys of the case. On September 10, 1993, the defense of Simmons claimed during the trials that upon Simmons’ arrest, he was waived from the Miranda rights and was harshly interrogated by the police and even was put under pressure to confess and video tape the re-act of the crime. On September 1993 the ACLU and some Nobel peace prize activists were petitioning for a reduction in sentence from capital punishment to life in prison. Between 1993 until 2002,Simmons appealed so many times through his new team of defense. He did first appeal to Missouri Supreme Court which was initially denied, and then he later tried to appeal to federal districts and circuit courts which were also denied. In 2002 he was strengthened by the Atkins v Virginia ruling which determined that executing certain groups was not just. This case was very important to rely on and to overturn his death penalty. On August 26, 2003, Simmons’ sentence was reduced to life in prison based on the consensus that the execution of the juvenile offenders is considered unusual through the last decade nationally and internationally. As a result, this is a perfect example how cases affect each other and how precedents should be taken into consideration. In addition, this is a perfect scenario to prove how the constitution is not static and always evolves with time and circumstances.